HISTORY OF COOKING.

Today we are going to have a taste of very interesting topic “Cooking” and also the flavour of “Fine Dining”.

TASTE OF COOKING

A. A BRIEF AND INTERESTING HISTORY OF COOKING

I n the 17th & 18th century Royal and high ranking people took great interest in food and cooks in gratitude named dishes after them. The cooks during feasts were honoured if the food was good and appreciated. If something went wrong they were flogged in front of the guests.

Since the end of 19th century, French culinary art has reached the highest point of perfection, chefs like Escoffier and Prosper Salles published books on cookery, which had far reaching influence and are known throughout the world. Gastronomy (style or custom of cooking or eating) is an art with defined rules: the same is true of its presentation. Great emphasis is laid on sauces and it is even called ‘Sauce cookery’. Every ingredient speaks its own language, wines used for cooking enhance the taste and give an unusual flavour, this being a unique feature of French cuisine. The most important rule is to use only the best ingredients and the proper blend of colour and taste of ingredients. Ingredients play an important role as it has climatic variations in the south France Garnishes and accompaniments play a key role in French cuisine and dishes are identify by them Great emphasis is laid on the presentation of the dishes, and garnishes and accompaniments make the dish colourful.
The cooking medium used is butter, olive oil, or salad oil, thus the dishe is not greasy, but gives lightness to the taste.

Spices and herbs give a subtle flavour, taste and originality to the dishes. Some of the spices and herbs are parsley, celery, basil, tarragon, thyme, rosemary, chives, paprika, nutmeg etc.

Vegetables are served with main courses and serve as one of the accompaniments; they act as fillers to meat dishes. They add colour to the menu and make thyme colourful.
Cheese is extensively used and can be used as a base of dish, garnishes to soups, blended with sauces or grated on top of the dishes and almost every region of France has its own cheese and a few popular cheeses are Camembert, Roquefort, Neufchatel, etc.,

B. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF COOKING

The aim or the intention of cooking is to see t hat the food cooked undergoes a physical change, sometimes a chemical change and is acceptable.
The object of cooking is to achieve certain results such as:

1. To facilitate and hasten digestion, so that the cooked food is absorbed by the digestive system and subsequently assimilated by the body.

2. A physical change occurs when a substance changes its form, colour or size, but still remains that same substance, like water that changes to ice.

3. A chemical change occurs when a substance changes its form, colour or size, combining so as to form an entirely new body, e.g. milk changes to curd.

4. Cooking partly sterilize food above 40oC, so that the growth of bacteria falls off rapidly and boiling kills the living cells.

5. Cooking makes food more attractive to have eye appearance and variety.

6. Cooking increases taste and palatability.

7. Cooking helps to make food more digestible.

8. With one ingredient in many dishes can be prepared.

9. Use of right cooking method so that there is minimum loss of colour, texture and nutrition.

10. Use of various ingredients to provide a balance diet.

C. EFFECT OF COOKING

The effect of cooking upon the three chief constituents of food- proteins, carbohydrates and fats – is visible in their increasing digestibility.

Proteins

The protein is coagulated by heat e.g. when the heat is applied to egg white it thickens, becomes opaque and then firm. Avoid high temperatures as the protein hardens, denatures and shrinks and the food becomes indigestible. The connective tissue is converted into gelatine which is soluble in water and rendered digestible. The proteins’ biological value is improved by moderate heating.

Carbohydrates

Starch in food is greatly affected by heat. By moist heat, it is converted first into a soluble form and then by extreme heat into a new substance, sweetish in flavour e.g. dextrin in the crust of bread. Moist heat causes the starch grains to swell; it gelatinises at a temperature below boiling point of water, the degree of heat varying with the kind of starchy food.

Cellulose is softened by the application of moist heat. Sugar when heated in water dissolves, then colours, upon further heating, turns brown and becomes a caramel and emits a lovely flavour, but not crystallise. Moderate heat does not cause much loss of mineral salts and vitamins, expect vitamin.

Fats

If heated to a very high degree for a long time, fats undergo partial decomposition and fatty acids and glycerol are produced. Glycerol further decomposes into acerolin which is an irritating compound to the digestive system.

Fats melt to oils when heated. Water is given off, with a bubbling noise as heating
continues. When all the water has been given off, a faint blue haze appears; further
heating will result in smoking and burning. The unpleasant smell of burning fat is caused by the presence of fatty acids.

D. INTRODUCTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF RAW MATERIALS

Raw materials are classified in two groups:

I. Perishables: The food commodities with less shelf life are called perishables.
Eg. Vegetables, meat products, milk and milk products & fruits.

II. Non- Perishable: The food commodities with shelf life are called nonperishables.
Eg. Pulses, lentils & cereals.

E. CHARACTERISTICS OF RAW MATERIALS

To achieve the standard finished products one should have a thorough knowledge of characteristics of raw materials and the basic roles of different raw materials used for the food preparation:

1) Salt
2) Liquids
3) Sweetening
4) Fats and Oils
5) Raising Agents
6) Thickenings
7) Flavouring and Seasonings

Salt

The chemical name for salt is sodium chloride. It is readily available in a solid (rock salt) or in a solution form (sea salt).

Salt, having a distinctive taste, changes an insipid dish to a wonderful dish. It should be used skilfully, or too much of it could spoil the dish.

Salt is available in 3 forms:
I. Table salt (fine) containing phosphate.
II. Coarse or freezing salt for culinary purposes.
III. Celery salt. It is a blend of celery root and ordinary salt and is purchased ready prepared. It is used for flavouring certain dishes as an alternative to fresh celery or celery seed.

Uses of salt

1) Use of the correct amount of salt improves the flavour of the dishes.
2) It strengthens gluten and increases its resistance of
fermentation.
3) It helps to remove the insects in different vegetables ex:
Cauliflower, when put in salted water, makes the insects come out.
4) It controls fermentation process in the baked products.
5) Helps in colour retention and enhances the taste.
6) Salting is one of the oldest popular methods of preserving pickles, fish and bacon
7) Salt is essential for good health.

LIQUIDS

Liquids play a very important role for the purpose of cooking, binding and coating etc. Milk, water, stock and fruit juices are the most commonly used liquids. They help the food to prevent burning, bind dry ingredients and help in maintaining the right consistency.

Stock is a liquid containing soluble nutrients and flavours, which are extracted by prolonged and gentle simmering (except fish stock – 20 mins.). they generally contain a mixture of water, collection of herbs and meat trimmings and bones. They are used as a foundation of soups, sauces, gravies, curries, poaching liquors and many important kitchen preparations.

It is important that the correct amount of liquid should be used, or too much would make the food stodgy, soggy or watery.

SWEETENERS

Sweeteners are used with other foods to enhance the flavour of the dish produced. It also adds its own sweetness, and is a versatile food product used in a variety of ways. They are available in different forms granulated, fine grained, powdered and in a solution form.

Functions
1)It acts as a food additive and also gives the golden brown colour to the baked products.
2)The ability of sugar to crystallise, gives a delightful variety in cookery. 3)Sugar has long been used as a preservative; it is an effective preservative and can dissolve in water at very high concentration.

Degrees and Stages of Cooking the Sugar

102oC Small Thread Suitable for Rasgullas
103oC Large Thread Suitable for Jellebis
106oC Pearl Suitable for Gomme (white concentrate sugar syrup)
116°C Soft Ball Suitable for Marzipan
119°C Ball Suitable for Fondant
121 °C Hard Ball Suitable for Nougat
143°C Soft Crack Suitable for Italian Meringue
156°C Hard Crack Suitable for Dipping Fruit
163oC-177oC Caramel Suitable for Caramel Custard.

FATS AND OILS

Fats and oils are nutritionally useful and also contribute certain characteristics like palatability, qualities of flavour and texture. They are popularly used as the medium of cooking.

Fats are solid at room temperature and melts when heated. Oils are liquids at room temperature. Only coconut oil solidifies at low temperature. Various fats used in cooking are-lard (pig’s fat), suet (fat around kidneys), dripping (Tallow Beef fat), butter, margarine, ghee, hydrogenated fat, cocoa butter (for confectionery).

Oils are extracted from coconut, palm, sesame, cotton seed, olive, peanut, mustard, corn and sunflower. Salad oil is a deodorized vegetable oil and is used for salad dressings, etc. as olive oil-the best for the purpose-is very expensive and scarce.

Fats and oils are used for various purposes, the major culinary part played
by them are as-
(1) Spreads,
(2) Shortenings,
(3) Salad dressings,
(4) Frying media and
(5) Tempering.

Spreads: Butter and margarines are used for spreads, and their function is to add to the flavour, nutritional value and increase the satiety value of breads. Shortening: These are fats which shorten the gluten strands, surround them and make them more easily broken (short). When added to flour by the crumbing, folding or rubbing in methods, it gives a bit of tenderness, richness and sheen to the crumb.
Tempering: Dals, curries, rice dishes, etc. are tempered. The fat or oil is heated to which cumin seeds, mustard and/or fenugreek seeds, etc. is added and poured over the Dals.

Salad Dressings: Fat is used for the various salad dressings-Hot animal fat dressings, which consist of bacon fat, vinegar and seasonings, served hot, are used on green hot salads. Cooked dressing is a cooked mixture of egg, vinegar/ lime, fat, starch and seasonings. The typical types of salad dressings which use fat are as follows:

French/American/English dressings are emulsions of oil, vinegar or lemon juice and seasoning.

Mayonnaise is an emulsion of salad oil, vinegar (acid) egg yolk and seasoning.

Frying Medium

Fats and oils are used very commonly as a medium of cooking. When fats or oils are heated, a temperature is reached at which visible fumes appear which is defined as smoke point. Fats with high smoke point are suitable for frying. Different fats do not have the same smoke point. The highest frying needed for any food is about 199°C (390°C). Hydrogenated fats have a high smoke point and are good as a frying medium compared to other fats. For the selection of a good fat, the following points should be remembered. A frying fat should have a high smoke point, low congealing point, high stability, low moisture content, and should have an acceptable flavour. Fats and oils have a high percentage of unsaturated fats and have more shortening power, than saturated fats. Animal’s fats such as butter, lard and suet make the food short, i.e. break off (short) and readily melt in the mouth. For the selection of shortening, the following factors should be observed according to the type of food product being produced:

(1) Shortening should cream well or it will affect the cake volume.
(2) It should have no moisture; then it will be short.
(3) The shortening should be stable and should not get rancid so that the cooked product has a good keeping quality.
(4) The right consistency of fat, i.e. solidified for puff and flaky pastry, soft for cakes and biscuits help to get a good texture. To acquire good results in baking, because of fats and other ingredients, certain rules should be followed-“The richer the pastry, the hotter the oven, and the richer the cake, the cooler the oven.”

Rendering of Fat

Animal fat is heated and melted and this renders fat from fatty tissues. Tallow, suet and lard are usually rendered and used for cooking. The fat is cut into small pieces and placed in a pan and put in the oven or on slow fire, until the fat melts, and there are crisp brown pieces of tissues left. This should be strained through a fine cloth into a clean bowl. This procedure is known as rendering.

Clarification of Fat

Used fat should be clarified and then used for better results in cooking. Strain the used fat and then mix double the quantity of water in a pan and bring it to the boil. Strain again, cool and place it in a refrigerator.
The fat will solidify and float on top. Lift the cake of fat, turn it upside down and scrape off the foreign particles that have collected. Heat the fat on slow fire, till fire, till the water evaporates and then strain and store it in a cool place.

RAISING OR LEAVENING AGENTS

Leavening is increasing the surface area of a dough or batter by creating within, a myriad of gas bubbles puffing up, thus increasing the volume and making it light.
The expansion of these gases during baking increases the volume of the product and gives a desirable porous structure. The aeration of flour products is affected by the following:

(1) Biological (yeast)
(2) Chemical (baking powder)
(3) Mechanical (whisking, beating)
(4) Lamination (folding, rolling)
(5) Combination of the above.

(1) Yeast: It is a living micro-organism and is a form of plant life (fungi). It requires for its growth, food, moisture, warmth and air. The primary function of yeast is to change sugar into carbon dioxide gas, so that the dough, in which it is generated, is aerated. It also assists in mellowing and ripening the gluten of the dough, and it contains vitamin B complex.

When using yeast, these points should be remembered:

(a) It remains dormant in cold.
(b) It rises in warmth.
(c) It is killed by excess heat (if temperature is over 127° F).
(d) It is fed by sugar, and in the dough it caramelizes on the outside, forming a brown crust.
(e) It is fed by flour; the starch gelatinizes with the moisture inside the dough and cooks into a light spongy mixture which is digestible.
(f) Strong or hard flour is the best to use in bread-making.
(g) If salt is added in the correct proportions, it gives a good flavour, controls fermentation and improves the colour of the finished goods. Commercial yeast is of two main types compressed in cake form (also in a liquid form) and dry yeast in granular form.

Mechanical Aeration: This is achieved by incorporating air through whisking, beating and sieving. When sugar and eggs, fat and sugar, fat and flour or any combination of these are beaten or whisked together, or flour is sieved, it works as aeration.
There are many departments involved in the Hotel Industry from buying the raw material to getting it reach the final customer. They are:

DEVELOPMENT
SALES & MARKETING
FRONT OFFICE
HOUSE KEEPING
FOOD AND BEVERAGE
PURCHASE AND STORES
KITCHEN
INTERDEPARTMENTAL CO-ORDINATION

The various departments of a hotel are so closely interlinked that none can do without the other. Therefore it becomes imperative for us to understand what communication exists between these departments so that we may practice the same in our work experiences.

Department has to co-ordinate with the other departments as depicted in the illustration for the following purposes:
F&B Service: there should be a very close co-ordination with this department as they are various F& B service outlets for which food has to be sent to all the outlets by taking care of their type of food, quantity of food and different food pickup times. Service outlets have to informed well in advanced regarding the bookings. As per that the kitchen personnel prepares the mise-en-place well in advance for the smooth operations.

House Keeping: This department plays a major role in keeping the various kitchen uniforms neat, hygienic and clean at all times. Staffs on both sides have to co-ordinate to maintain high standards of professional upkeep.

Front Office: The kitchen department receive information regarding group arrivals & departure dates of the guests which is important and also VIP guest his favorite food items and special instructions for the food preparation. Every day this department sends the house count to the kitchen.

Sales & Marketing: The personnel in this department strike deals with various people and organizations for corporate meetings, conventions, celebrative parties, etc. normally these parties are routed to the Banquets department. The same is being instructed the kitchen for the preparations of food and the pick up time with coordination with Banquets department.

HRD: This is an important department as F&B relies here in recruiting and dismissal of skilled manpower for running their operations smoothly with the co-ordination of executive chef. The salaries and other benefits, training etc of the F&B staff are given by the HRD department.

Security: This department takes care of the timings of the kitchen staff. Sometimes they have to take care of the kitchen equipments which are placed in various F&B outlets for food pickup.

Purchase and Stores: The co-ordination with this department is very essential for purchase of food items with their specifications. With the help of the purchase department the access to the food suppliers should be maintained very smoothly for the supplies of food commodities i.e. perishable and non-perishables and also special ingredients for the special events.

The stores has to co-ordinate with kitchen for the storing and issuing of food commodities round the clock.

• PULSES: These are mainly dried legumes or seeds which are used mainly after boiling or simmering till they are done. Three most important types are- beans, peas and lentils
• TYPES OF BEANS:
• Aduki- small round, deep red, shiny beans with a sweet and nutty flavour.
• Black beans- Black eyed
• Broad
• Broad or Java beans
• Borlotti
• Butter beans
• Cannellini
• Haricot
• Red Kidney: This has an enzyme which has to be destroyed by cooking.
• Soya beans: Very high in protein, usually used in textured form.
• Mung beans
•
• TYPES OF PEAS:
1. Blue peas or marrow fat: These have a pleasant flavour with floury texture, retain shape after cooking.
2. Chick peas
3. Split green: These are sweeter than blue peas
4. Split Yellow
•
• TYPES OF LENTILS:
1. Orange
2. Green
3. Yellow
4. Red
5. Puy or dark French lentils
6. Indian brown
• PREPARATION METHODS AND PROCEDURES
1. Wash well and remove any foreign particles
2. Soak over night in three times of water:- Some pulses like washed lentil do not need soaking.
3. Simmered covered without salt till tender salt should not be added during cooking or soaking as this hardens the pulses. Salt can be added at the end of cooking process. Pulses should not be boiled as high temperature harden the pulses.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:

1. Always keep cooked pulses away from raw foods to avoid cross contamination.
2. Keep cooked pulses covered in a cooled room below 50 C(410F)
3. Before cooking always pick out any dust grit or particles from the pulses also check for insect infestation during purchase
Equipment required for preparing and cooking pastry
Equipment and utensils for preparing pastries must be clean with no visible signs of food debris or food particles.

It is important that you gather all equipment and utensils before you start working on pastry. There are several reasons why this is recommended:
• You do not want pastry ingredients to come to room temperature for longer than necessary.
• Pastry making is messy. You do not want to stop kneading or rolling pastry to collect forgotten ingredients or equipment.
Equipment that you may require includes:
• kitchen scales
• electric mixers
• food processor/blender/mouli/grater
• rolling pin
• pastry rack for cooling
• marble slab for rolling out pastries
• trays/baking sheets
• saucepans
• measuring cups/measuring spoons
• scrapers/wooden spoons
• lifters/palette knife
• pastry cutters
• piping bags and nozzles
• greaseproof paper/parchment paper/foil
• storage containers
• sieve/sugar dredger
• mixing bowls.

Selecting pastry ingredients of the type, quality and quantity required
Successful baking of pastries requires that you select the best quality ingredients and that you read recipes carefully, observing correct ratios and baking times.

The ingredients

There are some basic ingredients that are used in the preparation of pastries. Always make sure you have the required ingredients in stock for items that appear on the menu. If not, you should inform your supervisor of the situation. Where possible, check for freshness of ingredients before commencing the product.
Some of the most common ingredients include:

Flour - wheat flour is the most common type of flour used in pastry.
Liquid - cold water is generally used in pastry making. Less water is required when egg yolk and lemon juice is used.
Shortening - adds flavour, colour and richness to pastry recipes. Shortening should be firm. Types of shortening that may be used include butter, lard, margarine, clarified fat, suet and solid vegetable oil. Butter is recommended for elaborate pastries as it gives the best flavour.
Sugar - will improve the flavour of pastries. It is commonly added to short crust pastry so that it may be used for sweet dishes. It also helps to give that lovely golden brown surface when it caramelises during baking.
Eggs - whisked eggs are added to choux pastry to give it a glossy smooth texture, which is different from other pastries.

Types of pastries

All pastries use flour. They do, however, differ according to what other ingredients are added and according to the preparation method.
The main types of pastries are:

Shortcrust

This pastry is made from blending flour with half its weight of shortening. Water, with perhaps the addition of some lemon, is added to produce dough, which can be rolled. Commonly used in pies, pasties and quiches.

Sweet shortcrust

To produce a richer taste, sugar is added to shortcrust pastry and egg yolk partly replaces the water. Found in sweet fruit pies, flans and sweet tarts.

Rough puff or Flaky pastry

This pastry has similar texture to puff pastry but rises in a more random way. This is because it has small pieces of shortening in it rather than whole layers. Used in fruit pies, meat and fish patties, sausage rolls and cheesecakes.

Choux

This mixture uses more water than other types of pastry and also includes eggs. The mixture is vigorously beaten to give the pastry the elasticity so that it will expand when cooked. This attractive pastry is used for both sweet and savoury fillings.

Puff

This product has hundreds of wafer thin layers that are created using a lengthy process of rolling, folding and refrigeration. Layers of shortening are sandwiched between the pastry. During baking, the shortening melts and steam from the water puffs the layers apart.

Suet

This pastry uses finely chopped beef suet as the shortening. Baking powder is added to give the pastry lightness.

Quality

Many recipes will specify the type and quality of the ingredients required. It is important that you observe these requirements if you are to achieve quality pastry.

Do not use stale or second rate ingredients otherwise your final product will not be as good. If you think an ingredient is stale, has gone off or is rancid, then in line with organisational procedures, refer the situation to your supervisor.

Preparing the pastry

There are some basic rules in pastry making that apply regardless of the type of pastry being prepared.
• Make sure pastries are prepared in cool working conditions with chilled utensils if possible. Early in the morning is often best.
• Plain flour is generally recommended for pastries. It should be sieved to remove any lumps and to aerate the flour, which will have settled during transporting.
• Handle the pastry as little as possible and always use your fingertips for rubbing in so body warmth does not soften the shortening.
• Measure water/liquid carefully so you do not end up with a sticky mess. Water should be chilled, except the water used in choux pastry.
• Do not over mix the pastry.
• Pastries are improved by placing them to rest in the refrigerator between rolling.

Basic preparation methods for pastry:

Rubbing in - this involves using the tips of your fingers to rub shortening into the flour mixture. Your aim is to achieve a mixture that looks like breadcrumbs. This method is used for shortcrust and sweet shortcrust pastry.

Mixing - when making suet pastry, the finely chopped suet must be mixed with the flour. Mixing is also used to incorporate eggs into a choux pastry.

Folding - this method is used when making puff pastry and flaky pastry. It involves folding and turning the pastry many times encasing shortening between the layers. The pastry is wrapped and refrigerated between folds to keep the shortening firm. If this is not allowed to happen, the shortening will blend with the flour instead of remaining in separate layers. If pastry mixes are folded correctly, the final cooked product should show many very fine layers of pastry interleaved by layers of shortening.

Rolling - to form the pastry into the shape required, use firm even strokes over the top of the pastry. You should aim to keep equal pressure on the rolling pin. Always roll pastry in one direction only. If you continually change direction, your pastry will become distorted as you are stretching the gluten in the flour in many directions. If your pastry becomes too long, turn it 90o and then continue rolling.

Lightly dust your work surface to avoid the pastry sticking. Some chefs also lightly dust their rolling pin and/or the surface of the pastry. Be careful not to use too much flour, as this will cause the pastry to become tough.

TIPS

Unexpected situations

As you roll out your pastry, you find it is continually breaking.
This may have been caused because the pastry was not kept cool enough, or you used too much shortening or too little water.

Resting - when making shortcrust and sweet shortcrust it is important to leave the pastry in a cool place before and after rolling. There are several reasons for this:
• the starch in the flour has time to absorb the liquid
• the shortening firms up so the pastry has a better texture
• it allows the pastry to become more elastic so that it shrinks less when cooked.

It is also important to rest puff pastry and flaky pastry between folding.
Kneading - this is the process that works the ingredients into a properly blended mixture. The hands are used to work the pastry. Take care to not over knead the pastry, as it will become tough.

Types of fruit

Fresh, canned or dried fruit can be put to a variety of uses in the kitchen. It can be eaten raw in salads, as a dessert with cheese or can be cooked to accompany a meat dish, or on its own. It is important to observe the seasons of fruits as this will impact on cost and availability. Surplus fruits can be preserved and used during unseasonable times.

The four different types of fruit are:

Stone Fruits include cherries, plums, peaches, dates, nectarines and apricots.

Hard Fruits include apples, pears and crab apples.

Soft Fruits include berries, pineapples, mangoes, bananas and melons.

Citrus Fruits include lemons, limes, grapefruits, oranges and mandarins.

Quality of fruit

When buying fresh or processed fruit, there are quality points you will need to look for. Fresh fruit should:
be uniform in size and shape
be free from blemishes (specks, moulds, bruises)
have good shape and colour
not be overripe
not be wilted or shrivelled up.

There are two general marketing grades for fresh fruit.

Fancy: Firm, clean, free from defect, fully matured, and well formed with good shape and colour.

Choice: As above, but with slight imperfections in shape, colour and size.
Careful selection is also needed when purchasing different types of processed fruits as they can be purchased in many different forms.
• Fresh
• Fresh processed (pulps, fruit salad)
• Frozen
• Freeze dried
• Canned or bottled
• Preserved in syrup
• Dried
• Candied, glazed.

When buying different types of processed fruit, careful consideration should be given to the following.

Frozen fruits must show no signs of partial thawing, freezer burn or excessive frost. Look for:
• juice which has run to the bottom of the pack and refrozen
• dehydration or dried out appearance
• Any discoloration.

Canned fruit should have labels, and be free of dust, corrosion, dents or bulging.

Dried Fruit should:
• have uniform size and shape
• have good colour
• be free of moulds or foreign objects.

Selecting appropriate fruit

The selection and purchase of fruit should be determined by what it will be used for. Fruit can be prepared in a variety of ways, including:
• fresh
• as a dessert
• in pastry
• poached, baked or fritters
• Pureed.

Ways to prepare fruit

Prepare fruit using appropriate methods

Fresh fruits may require preparation before they can be cooked or served raw.
Oranges have to be peeled, melons seeded, pineapple skinned and the core removed.

There are cost factors involved that must be taken into consideration. One is the cost of labour needed to prepare the fruit. The other is wastage involved in preparation of fruit. This includes skins, peelings, leaves, seeds, stems and cores that should be taken into account when purchasing fruit. Wastage can dramatically affect the actual yield after preparation.

In order to prevent over-ordering or insufficient quantities, it is important that you are aware of the waste percentages of different types of fruits.
Ways to prepare fruit include:
• Peel
• Chop
• Cut
• Trim
• Skin
• Shred
• Slice
• Grate